Holons and Holarchies
From some page describing Holonic Manufacturing Systems:
Arthur Koestler proposed the word “holon” [after the Greek holos = whole, with the suffix -on = particle or part]. A holon, as Koestler devised the term, is an identifiable part of a system that has a unique identity, yet is made up of sub-ordinate parts and in turn is part of a larger whole.
From Flemming Funch’s essay Holarchies:
Each Holon could be regarded as either a whole or as a part depending on how one looks at it. A Holon will look as a whole to those parts beneath it in the hierarchy, but it will look as a part to the wholes above it. So, a Holarchy is then a whole that is also a structure of parts that are in themselves wholes.
From a page titled “History of ‘Holons’”:
Koestler also establishes the link between holons and [Herbert Simon’s parable of the two watchmakers]. [...] Simon concludes that complex systems will evolve from simple systems more rapidly if there are stable intermediate forms than if there are not [...].